task completion

क्रिया [कृ भावे करणादौ वा श cf. P.III]

1 Doing, execu- tion, performance, accomplishment; उपचार˚, धर्म˚; प्रत्युक्तं हि प्रणयिषु सतामीप्सितार्थक्रियैव Me.116.

-2 An action, act, business, undertaking; प्रणयिक्रिया V.4.15; Ms.2.4.

-3 Activity, bodily action, labour.

-4 Teaching, instruction; क्रिया हि वस्तूपहिता प्रसीदति R.3.29. क्रिया हि द्रव्यं विनयति नाद्रव्यम् Kau. A.1.5.

-5 Possession of some act (as of singing, dancing &c.), knowledge; शिष्टा क्रिया कस्यचिदात्मसंस्था M.1.16.

-6 Practice (opp. शास्त्र theory).

-7 A literary work, composition; शृणुत मनोभिर- वहितैः क्रियामिमां कालिदासस्य V.1.2; कालिदासस्य क्रियायां कथं परिषदो बहुमानः M.1.

-8 A purificatory rite, a religious rite or ceremony; Ms.1.43.

-9 An expiatory rite, expiation.

-1 (a) The ceremony of offering oblations to the deceased ancestors (श्राद्ध). (b) Obsequies.

-11 Worship; त्रैतादिषु हरेरर्चा क्रियायै कविभिः 'कृता Bhāg.7.14.39.

-12 Medical treatment, application of remedies, cure; शीतक्रिया M.4 cold remedies.

-13 (In gram.) Action, the general idea expressed by a verb.

-14 Motion.

-15 Especially, motion as one of the seven categories of the Vaiśeṣikas; see कर्मन्.

-16 (In law) Judicial investigation by human means (witnesses &c.) or by ordeals.

-17 Burden of proof; क्रिया स्याद्वादिनोर्द्वयोः, द्वयो- रपि वादिनोः क्रिया प्राप्नोति V. May.

-18 A verb.

-19 A noun of action.

-2 Disquisition.

-21 Study.

-22 Means, expedients.

-23 Instrument, implement.

-24 A con- struction; कूपप्रपापुष्करिणीवनानां चक्रुः क्रियास्तत्र च धर्मकामाः Bu. Ch.2.12.

-25 Spirit (अध्यात्म) ?; द्रव्यक्रियाकारकाख्यं धूत्वा यान्त्यपुनर्भवम् Bhāg.12.6.38.

-Comp. -अन्वित a. practising ritual observances.

-अपवर्गः 1 completion or termination of an affair, execution of a task; क्रियापवर्गे- ष्वनुजीविसात् कृताः Ki.1.14.

-2 liberation from ceremoni- al acts, absolution.

-अभ्युपगमः a special agreement; क्रियाभ्युपगमात्त्वेतत् बीजार्थं यत्प्रदीयते Ms.9.53;

-अर्थ a.

1 (a Vedic injunction) enjoining some duty.

-2 useful for some purpose; अपि क्रियार्थं सुलभं समित्कुशम् Ku.5.33.

-अव- सन्न a. one who loses a law-suit through the statements of the witnesses &c.

-आरम्भः Cooking; आत्मार्थं च क्रिया- रम्भः Ms.11.64.

-इन्द्रियम् see कर्मेंन्द्रिय.

-कलापः 1 the whole body of ceremonies enjoined in the Hindu religi- ous law.

-2 all the particulars or points of any business.

-कल्पः a particular mode of diognosis.

-काण्डम् The portion of a श्रुति text treating of the sacrifices.

-कारः 1 an agent, worker.

-2 a beginner, tyro, a fresh student.

-3 an agreement.

-तन्त्रम् one of the four classes of Tantras; Buddha.

-द्वेषिन् m. a witness whose testimony is prejudicial to the cause (one of the five kinds of witnesses).

-द्वैतम् efficient cause.

-निर्देशः evidence.

-पटु a. dexterous.

-पथः mode of medical treatment.

-पदम् a verb.

-पर a. diligent in the perfor- mance of one's duty.

-पादः the third division of a legal plaint; that is, witnesses, documents and other proofs adduced by the plaintiff or complainant.

-माधुर्यम् beauty of art and architecture; अहो क्रियामाधुर्यं पाषाणानाम् Pratimā 3.

-यज्ञः religious rites (such as गर्भाधानसंस्कार); Mb.1.18.5.

-योगः 1 connection with the verb.

-2 the employment of expedients or means; तदा तत्प्रतिकाराच्च सततं वा विचिन्तनात् । आधिव्याधिप्रशमनं क्रियायोगद्वये न तु ॥ Mb. 3.2.23.

-3 the practical form of Yoga philosophy i. e. active devotion.

-लोपः omission or discontinuance of any of the essential ceremonies of the Hindu religion; क्रिया- लोपाद् वृषलत्वं गताः Ms.1.43.

-वशः necessary influence of acts done.

-वाचक, -वाचिन् a. expressing any action, as a verbal noun.

-वादिन् m. a plaintiff, complainant.

-विधिः a rule of action, manner of any rite; अयमुक्तो विभागो वः पुत्राणां च क्रियाविधिः Ms.9.22.

-विशेषणम्, 1 an adverb.

-2 a predicative adjective.

-शक्तिः f. the power of god (in creating this world).

-संक्रान्तिः f. imparting (to others) one's knowledge; teaching; विवादे दर्शयिष्यन्तं क्रियासंक्रान्तिमात्मनः M.1.19.

-समभिहारः [cf. P.III.1.22] the repetition of any act; क्रियासम- भिहारेण विराध्यन्तं क्षमेत कः Śi.2.43.

espletamento s.m. ( burocrazia) completion, fulfilment, performance: espletamento di un incarico, fulfilment of a task.

πλήρ-ωμα, ατος, τό,

A that which fills, complement, κρατήρων πληρώματα, i.e. wine, E. Ion 1051 (lyr.); so κενὸν τόδ' ἄγγος, ἢ στέγει π. τι; ib. 1412; χθονὸς π., i.e. men, Id.Or. 1642;

λίθους τοὺς εἰς τὰ π. τῷ πύργῳ προσάξεται IG22.244.109

, cf. 90, al. (iv B. C.);

τὸ π. τῆς γαστρός Hp.

Aër.7, Mul.2.169, cf. Epicur.Sent.Vat. 59; of excrement, Orib.8.35.7.

2 δαιτὸς π. satiety of the feast, E.Med. 203 (anap.); π. τυρῶν their fill of cheese, Id.Cyc. 209.

3 of ships, full number, Hdt.8.43,45; but, of single ships, complement, crew, in pl., Th.7.4,12, X.HG5.1.11, D.21.155, etc.: in sg., Th.7.14; opp. ὑπηρεσία (q.v.), Lys.21.10;

παραλαβὼν τῶν πολιτᾶν ἐπιλέκτους ἐμ π. τρισί IPE12.352.40

(Cherson., ii B. C.);

π. ἐπίλεκτον Plb. 1.47.6

: generally, π. παρέχεσθαι πόλεως make up the full number of citizens, Arist.Pol. 1267b16, 1284a5, cf. 1291a17, Pl.R. 371e;

τῶν φίλων π. ἀθροίσας E. Ion 664

; gang of workmen, PPetr.3p.130 (iii B. C.).

4 of number, sum,

ὀγδώκοντα ἔτεα ζόης π. μακρότατον προκεῖσθαι 80

years are fixed as life's longest sum, Hdt.3.22;

τούτων π. τάλαντ' ἐγγὺς δισχίλια γίγνεται Ar.V. 660

; sum, total,

τὸ π. τῶν ἀγαθῶν Metrod.Herc.831.14

, cf. Polystr.Herc.346p.81V., Diog.Oen. 2.

5 piece inserted to fill up, Ev. Matt.9.16, Ruf.Onom. 216.

6 fullness, full and perfect nature, Ep.Rom.11.12; τὸ π. τοῦ θεοῦ, τοῦ Χριστοῦ, Ep.Eph.3.19, 4.13, cf. Ep.Col.1.19; τῆς θεότητος ib. 2.9; later

τὰ π. τῶν θεῶν Iamb.Myst.1.8

; the aggregate of properties which constitute the complete nature of a thing, full specification, substance, Dam.Pr.28 bis; φθαρτὰ π. ib.34; τὰ μέσα π. ib.35 bis; τὰ ἑκάστου πληρώματα τῆς οὐσίας ib.14, cf. 56,58;

πᾶς νοῦς, π. ὢν εἰδῶν Procl.Inst. 177

.

7 reserves of troops,

στρατιῶν Lyd.Mag.3.44

(pl.).

8 mass, complex, ὁ κόσμος π. ἐστι κακίας, ζωῆς, Corp.Herm. 6.4, 12.15;

γενομένη π. ἀρετῶν ἥδε ἡ ψυχή Ph.2.418

.

9 duties of an office, Lyd.Mag.3.6, al.; completion of a term of office (cf. 11), ib. 47.

10 freight, cargo,

νεώς Ph.2.18

, cf. 465: metaph., π. εὐτυχίας ib. 547.

II filling up, completing, S.Tr. 1213; Ζηνὸς ἔχεις κυλίκων π. hast the task of filling.., E.Tr. 824 (lyr.).

2 fulfilment,

νόμου Ep.Rom.13.10

.

the expenditure of physical or mental energy to achieve a purposeful task. Work is usually performed by employees within organizations, where it involves completion of a particular activity that contributes to the achievement of organizational goals.

SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology

[br]

[br]

[br]

The son of a Hamburg merchant, he studied mechanical engineering at the Polytechnikum in Zurich and was engaged in constructing a railway line in Hungary and Austria before he returned to Switzerland. At Airolo, where the Gotthard tunnel was to commence, he designed a hydraulic rock drill; the pneumatic ones, similar to the Ingersoll type, did not satisfy him. His drill consisted of two parts instead of three: the hydraulic motor and the installation for drilling. At the Sulzer company of Winterthur his first design, a percussion drill, in 1876, was developed into a rotary drill which worked with greatest success in the construction of various railway tunnels and also helped to reduce costs in the mining industry.

His Hamburg-based firm Brandt \& Brandau consequently was soon engaged in many tunnelling and mining projects throughout Germany, as well as abroad. During the years 1883 and 1895 Brandt spent time in exploration in Spain and reopening the lead-mines in Posada. His most ambitious task was to co-operate in drafting the Simplon tunnel, the construction of which relied greatly on his knowledge and expertise. The works began several years behind schedule, in 1898, and consequently he was unable to see its completion.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering

[br]

[br]

[br]

The son of Polycarp Roebling, a tobacconist, he studied mathematics at Dr Unger's Pedagogium in Erfurt and went on to the Royal Polytechnic Institute in Berlin, from which he graduated in 1826 with honours in civil engineering. He spent the next three years working for the Prussian government on the construction of roads and bridges. With his brother and a group of friends, he emigrated to the United States, sailing from Bremen on 23 May 1831 and docking in Philadelphia eleven weeks later. They bought 7,000 acres (2,800 hectares) in Butler County, western Pennsylvania, and established a village, at first called Germania but later known as Saxonburg. Roebling gave up trying to establish himself as a farmer and found work for the state of Pennsylvania as Assistant Engineer on the Beaver River canal and others, then surveying a railroad route across the Allegheny Mountains. During his canal work, he noted the failings of the hemp ropes that were in use at that time, and recalled having read of wire ropes in a German journal; he built a rope-walk at his Saxonburg farm, bought a supply of iron wire and trained local labour in the method of wire twisting.

At this time, many canals crossed rivers by means of aqueducts. In 1844, the Pennsylvania Canal aqueduct across the Allegheny River was due to be renewed, having become unsafe. Roebling made proposals which were accepted by the canal company: seven wooden spans of 162 ft (49 m) each were supported on either side by a 7 in. (18 cm) diameter cable, Roebling himself having to devise all the machinery required for the erection. He subsequently built four more suspension aqueducts, one of which was converted to a toll bridge and was still in use a century later.

In 1849 he moved to Trenton, New Jersey, where he set up a new wire rope plant. In 1851 he started the construction (completed in 1855) of an 821 ft (250 m) long suspension railroad bridge across the Niagara River, 245 ft (75 m) above the rapids; each cable consisted of 3,640 wrought iron wires. A lower deck carried road traffic. He also constructed a bridge across the Ohio River between Cincinnati and Covington, a task which was much protracted due to the Civil War; this bridge was finally completed in 1866.

Roebling's crowning achievement was to have been the design and construction of the bridge over the Hudson River between Brooklyn and Staten Island, New York, but he did not live to see its completion. It had a span of 1,595 ft (486 m), designed to bear a load of 18,700 tons (19,000 tonnes) with a headroom of 135 ft (41 m). The work of building had barely started when, at the Brooklyn wharf, a boat crushed Roebling's foot against the timbering and he died of tetanus three weeks later. His son, Washington Augustus Roebling, then took charge of this great work.

[br]

① maker of stage properties (acc. to Pollux 7, 189 the Old Comedy used the word as a synonym for μηχανοποιός=either a ‘stagehand’ who moved stage properties [as Aristoph., Pax 174] or a ‘manufacturer of stage properties’. Associated terms include σκηνογράφος Diog. L. 2, 125 and σκηνογραφία Arist., Poet. 1449a and Polyb. 12, 28a, 1, in ref. to painting of stage scenery) Ac 18:3. But if one understands σκηνή not as ‘scene’ but as ‘tent’ and considers it improbable that Prisca, Aquila, and Paul would have practiced such a trade in the face of alleged religious objections (s. Schürer II 54–55 on Jewish attitudes towards theatrical productions), one would follow the traditional rendering

② tentmaker. This interpretation has long enjoyed favor (s. Lampe s.v.; REB, NRSV; Hemer, Acts 119, 233), but several considerations militate against it. The term σκηνοποιός is not used outside the Bible (and its influence), except for Pollux (above) and Herm. Wr. 516, 10f=Stob. I, 463, 7ff. There it appears as an adj. and in a figurative sense concerning production of a dwelling appropriate for the soul. The context therefore clearly indicates a structure as the primary component, but in the absence of such a qualifier in Ac 18:3 it is necessary to take account of words and expressions that similarly contain the terms σκηνή and ποιεῖν. A survey of usage indicates that σκηνή appears freq. as the obj. of ποιέω in the sense ‘pitch’ or ‘erect a tent’ (s. ποιέω 1a; act. σκηνοποιέω Is 13:20 Sym. οὐδὲ σκηνοποιήσει ἐκεῖ ῎ Αραψ; 22:15 Sym.; mid. σκηνοποιέομαι Aristot., Meteor. 348b, 35; Clearch., Fgm. 48 W.; Polyb. 14, 1, 7; Diod S 3, 27, 4; Ps.-Callisth. 2, 9, 8.—Cp. σκηνοποιί̈α Aeneas Tact. 8, 3; Polyb. 6, 28, 3; ins, RevArch 3, ’34, 40; and acc. to the text. trad. of Dt 31:10 as an alternate expr. for σκηνοπηγία.—Ex 26:1, it is granted, offers clear evidence of use of the non-compounded σκηνή + ποιέω in the sense ‘produce’ or ‘manufacture [not pitch] a tent’, but the context makes the meaning unmistakable; cp. Herodian 7, 2, 4 on the building of rude housing). Analogously σκηνοποιός would mean ‘one who pitches or erects tents’, linguistically a more probable option than that of ‘tentmaker’, but in the passages cited for σκηνοποιέω and σκηνοποιί̈α components in the context (cp. the case for provision of housing in the Hermetic pass.) clearly point to the denotation ‘pitching of tents’, whereas Ac 18:3 lacks such a clear qualifier. Moreover, it is questionable whether residents of nomadic areas would depend on specialists to assist in such a common task (s. Mt 17:4 par. where a related kind of independent enterprise is mentioned).—That Prisca, Aquila, and Paul might have been engaged in the preparation of parts for the production of a tent is also improbable, since such tasks would have been left to their hired help. That they might have been responsible for putting a tent together out of various pieces is ruled out by the availability of the term σκηνορράφος (Ael., VH 2, 1 et al.; Bull. Inst. Arch. Bulg. 8, 69) in the sense of stitching together (the verb ἐπιτελεῖν Hb 8:5 does not support such a view, for it is not an alternate expr. for ‘production’ of a tent but denotes ‘completion’ of a project, connoting a strong sense of religious commitment; see ἐπιτελέω 2) in which the component ῥαφ-provides an unmistakable qualifier.—In modern times more consideration has been given to identification of Paul’s trade as ‘leather-worker’, an interpretation favored by numerous versions and patristic writings (s. Zahn, AG, ad loc.; L-S-J-M Suppl., s.v., as replacement for their earlier ‘tentmaker’; Haenchen, ad loc., after JJeremias, ZNW 30, ’31; Hock, s. below). As such he would make tents and other products from leather (Hock [s. below] 21). But this and other efforts at more precise definition, such as weaver of tent-cloth (a view no longer in fashion) may transmit reflections of awareness of local practice in lieu of semantic precision.—In the absence of any use of the term σκηνοποιός, beyond the pass. in Pollux and the Herm. Wr., and the lack of specific qualifiers in the text of Ac 18:3, one is left with the strong probability that Luke’s publics in urban areas, where theatrical productions were in abundance, would think of σκηνοποιός in ref. to matters theatrical (s. 1). In addition, Ac 20:34; 1 Cor 4:12; 1 Th 2:9; 2 Th 3:8 indicate that Paul’s work was of a technical nature and was carried out in metropolitan areas, where there would be large demand for such kind of work. What publics in other areas might understand is subject to greater question, for the evidence is primarily anecdotal.—JWeiss, Das Urchristentum 1917, 135; FGrosheide, Παῦλος σκηνοποιός: TSt 35, 1917, 241f; Zahn, AG II 632, 10; 634; Billerb. II 745–47; Beginn. IV, 223; PLampe, BZ 31, ’87, 211–21; RHock, The Social Context of Paul’s Ministry: Tentmaking and Apostleship ’80.—M-M. TW.